Chapter 1: The Ancient Era

Estonia was not a single united country. Instead it was divided into loads of smaller “counties”, which were something between a tribe and a country.

A map showcasing the approximate size and locations of ancient counties.

(Fun fact: in Finnish Estonia is called Viro (from Virumaa) and in Latvian it is called Igaunija (from Ugandi)

As can be seen from the map, the counties on the border were larger than the ones which were inland. The reason behind this is theorised to be the fact that border areas were more vulnerable, so it motivated smaller counties to peacefully unite into larger ones in order to be more powerful.

However, there is a possibility that eventually the counties would have united to form a single kingdom. People exclusively identified themselves with their specific county during earlier periods, but by the 13th century there were already some specific mentions of “Estonians” and “Estonia”. The chiefs of all counties had annual meetings in Raikküla, which was in Harjumaa, to discuss cooperation and other pressing matters. The counties also banded together during wartime. For example, during the Livonian Crusade, which I will cover later, Estonian counties formed coalitions, which were led by a single leader.

There were several conflicts between Estonians and their neighbours. The most notable was a war around 1030 AD, where Kievan Rus managed to conquer a large portion of South-East Estonia, but they managed to hold on to it for only 31 years. In 1061 Estonians reconquered their land. The year 1030 is important for another reason as well: it is the year when the city of Tartu was first mentioned in written records. That makes Tartu the oldest city in Estonia as in 2030 it will become 1000 years old.

Other conflicts tended to be raids, with both the Vikings raiding Estonia as well as Estonians raiding Scandinavia. A few notable stories:

• The traditional date for the beginning of the Viking Age is the raid on Lindisfarne, England in 793. However, in 2008 and 2010, two buried viking ships were uncovered in Salme, a village in Saaremaa. With them were buried 41 fighters, the skeletons had battle-scars. The items found helped to determine that the ship most likely came from Norway, and the warriors fell between 700-750 AD, thus pushing the start of the Viking age forward by almost 100 years. 
• The future king Olaf I of Norway, the first Christian one, was at merely three years of age fleeing with his parents from Sweden towards Russia. Their trip was cut short, as the vessel they were sailing on was captured by Estonian pirates, and he was taken to Estonia as a prisoner. In total he spent six years as a captive, until he was bought free by his uncle. 
• Estonians took part in the legendary Battle of Brávellir (c. 770) in Sweden, where they fought with the Swedes against the Danish. The Swedish-Estonian coalition won.
• The old capital of Sweden, Sigtuna, was burned down in 1187 by either Karelians, Estonians or Curonians depending on who you ask (there are several different proposed versions of events). 

There are loads of other mentions of Estonians in old Norse sagas and Russian chronicles, but these are the more interesting ones.

It must be noted that the most active raiders were the “Oeselians” or the seafaring inhabitants of Saaremaa. They have also been referred to as Estonian vikings and the Coat of Arms of Saaremaa has incorporated this narrative. Saaremaa was one of the most powerful and richest ancient counties, about a quarter of the entire population of Estonia at the time lived on that island.

Ancient Estonians were active traders and both Arabic and even Roman coins have been found here. There were no proper cities yet, but rather something called “aolinnad”, which basically means proto-cities. They were larger villages, usually around major forts, where nobles and craftsmen lived and trade happened. They were not as intricate as mediaeval towns, but most likely would have developed into such cities organically, had things been allowed to continue. The largest of them was Varbola, which had a permanent population of around 600 people. Lehola, Viljandi and Tarbatu (Tartu) were also important ones. The one in modern day Tallinn was called Lindanise.

Some bits of Varbola:

Most people were farmers, but there was also quite a numerous class of merchants and craftsmen, who mostly resided in “aolinnades” and forts. Some craftsmen, like house- and shipbuilders, travelled across the land in search of work. The iron industry is especially noteworthy, the intricately decorated weapons made by local blacksmiths were held in high regard throughout the region. There were also dedicated bronze craftsmen, who created personal ornaments, and in later years even some silversmiths popped up. Another important field was ceramics.

The people here lived quite a good life, as the uncovered male skeletons prove. The average height was 173 cm or 5ft 8, which was quite a lot for that time. (but perhaps it has something to do with genetics, the average height of modern day Estonians, both males and females, make us the third tallest people in the world.)

People were considered adults from a very early age. Twelve year old boys and girls were buried with similar items like 25 year old men or women.

Society was hierarchical and materially uneven. The elites owned large tracts of land. During earlier periods it was customary to elect County Elders amongst the leading families, but by the beginning of the 13th century most ruling positions had become hereditary. County Elders were called “kuningas”, which means king in Estonian. Farmers, who owned their land, had to pay taxes.

Interestingly enough, ancient Estonian society was relatively egalitarian in terms of gender equality. Women were buried with the same items as their male counterparts, including tools and weapons. The number of rich women was also equal to the number of rich men, something that very much differentiated Estonia from its southern and western neighbours. Also, some phenomena in folklore, which do not fit the context of the very much patriarchal Christian mindset, makes it probable that those stories are remnants of the prechristian ideology.

It has been concluded, from the items that people were usually buried with, that Estonian society valued warriorship, aggressiveness and individualism.

Not much is known about the pre-Christian religion. Sacred sites were called “hiied”, they tended to be on tree covered hilltops. Water springs were also considered holy, as well as other wet areas. A lot of tools and weapons have been found in swamps and bogs, they were most likely left there as sacrifices. People believed in nature spirits, as well as some gods. Which or how many gods ancient Estonians worshipped is unfortunately unknown. The only one that has been referenced in written text is Tharapita. However, it is theorised that “Tharapita”, as it was recorded, was actually “Taara, aita!”, a plea for help from the god Taara. Taara could very much be of similar origin as Thor.